Grammar reference

Conjunctions & Transitions

Connect ideas clearly — in one sentence or across a whole paragraph.

FANBOYS, subordinating conjunctions, correlative pairs and essay transitions, with the punctuation rules that keep them correct.

topics: 34 topics
connector types: 4 connector types
practice questions: 10 practice questions

How to choose a connector

1. One sentence or two?

Inside one sentence, use a conjunction. Across two sentences, use a transition with a full stop or semicolon.

2. What is the relationship?

Addition, contrast, cause, result, condition, example or sequence. Pick the meaning first, then the word.

3. Check the punctuation

Comma before a coordinating conjunction, comma after a fronted subordinate clause, and a full stop before a transition.

Exam-safe defaults: “because” for cause, “although” for contrast, “so” for result, and “however” to start a contrast sentence. They are correct in almost every context.

Connector library

Search for a word such as “unless” or “however”, or filter by type and function.

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Showing 34 of 34 topics

How it works

Addition: She speaks French and German.
Sequence: We had dinner and then watched a film.
Condition → result: Work hard and you’ll succeed. (imperative + and)
Lists: Use commas between items and “and” before the last one: tea, coffee and juice.
Two independent clauses: A comma before “and” is common when both clauses are long: “I finished the report, and I sent it to the manager.”

Examples

He opened the window and took a deep breath.
Two actions in sequence
I like tea, coffee and fresh juice.
List
Come early and you’ll get a good seat.
Condition and result

Tip: Do not put a comma before “and” when it simply joins two nouns or short phrases: “bread and butter”, not “bread, and butter”.

How it works

Strength: Moreover and furthermore add a strong, important point. In addition and additionally are neutral. Besides often adds a supporting reason in speech.
Position: Usually at the start of a sentence, followed by a comma. They can also appear mid-sentence between commas.
Punctuation: Full stop or semicolon before, comma after: “The plan is expensive. Moreover, it is risky.” / “…; moreover, it is risky.”

Table

Transition	Use	Example
moreover	Strong, formal addition	Moreover, the results were consistent.
furthermore	Formal addition in an argument	Furthermore, the data supports this view.
in addition	Neutral formal addition	In addition, we offer free delivery.
additionally	Neutral formal addition	Additionally, the app works offline.
besides	Adds a supporting point; conversational	Besides, it’s too late to change now.
what’s more	Emphatic, informal addition	What’s more, it’s completely free.

Examples

The hotel was clean. Moreover, the staff were incredibly helpful.
Strong addition
The course is affordable; furthermore, it is available online.
Building an argument
In addition, all participants receive a certificate.
Neutral formal
Besides, we’ve already paid for the tickets.
Supporting reason

Tip: Do not use “also” as a sentence-opening transition in formal writing (“Also, the plan…”). Use “In addition” or “Moreover” instead.

How it works

however: The most common contrast transition. “The price is high. However, the quality is excellent.”
nevertheless / nonetheless: Formal: the previous point is true, but the conclusion still stands. “The task was difficult; nevertheless, we finished on time.”
on the other hand: Introduces the other side of an argument, not necessarily a contradiction.
in contrast: Directly compares two different facts: “Sales rose in Europe. In contrast, they fell in Asia.”
on the contrary: Corrects a negative assumption: “It isn’t expensive. On the contrary, it’s quite cheap.”
conversely: The opposite relationship: “More supply usually lowers prices; conversely, less supply raises them.”

Table

Transition	Use	Example
however	General contrast	However, the results were disappointing.
nevertheless	Formal “despite this”	Nevertheless, the project continued.
nonetheless	Formal “despite this”	Nonetheless, the team remained confident.
on the other hand	The other side of an argument	On the other hand, the cost is lower.
in contrast	Direct comparison of facts	In contrast, last year was much drier.
on the contrary	Correcting a negative idea	On the contrary, it was a great success.
conversely	The opposite relationship	Conversely, demand falls in winter.

Examples

The flat is small. However, it has a lovely garden.
Contrast
The evidence is limited; nonetheless, the theory is plausible.
Formal concession
Some students prefer online classes. On the other hand, others need face-to-face contact.
Two sides
He’s not lazy. On the contrary, he works very hard.
Correcting an assumption

Tip: “However” is not a conjunction. Do not join two clauses with a comma alone: “It was late, however we continued” is a comma splice. Use a full stop or semicolon: “It was late. However, we continued.”

Common mistakes

It was late, however we continued.
It was late. However, we continued.
Use a full stop or semicolon before however.
However the price is high.
However, the price is high.
Comma after sentence-initial however.

How it works

therefore / thus: Logical conclusion. “Therefore” is common in arguments; “thus” is more formal and academic.
consequently / as a result: A direct consequence: “The flight was cancelled. As a result, we missed the meeting.”
hence: Very formal: “Demand exceeded supply; hence the price increase.”
accordingly: Formal: “The rules changed, and we acted accordingly.” (= in a way that matches)
Not a conjunction: These are transitions, so they follow a full stop or semicolon — not a comma.

Table

Transition	Use	Example
therefore	Logical conclusion	Therefore, the experiment was repeated.
thus	Formal conclusion	Thus, the hypothesis was supported.
consequently	Direct consequence	Consequently, the event was postponed.
as a result	Neutral consequence	As a result, sales increased by 12%.
hence	Very formal consequence	Hence the need for a new approach.
accordingly	Matching action	Accordingly, the policy was revised.

Examples

The data was incomplete. Therefore, we could not draw a conclusion.
Conclusion
The factory closed; consequently, hundreds lost their jobs.
Consequence
Prices rose sharply. As a result, many customers left.
Result
The evidence was weak; thus, the claim was rejected.
Formal

Tip: In speech, “so” is more natural than these transitions. In essays and reports, “therefore” and “as a result” are reliable choices.

Common mistakes

It was raining, therefore we stayed in.
It was raining. Therefore, we stayed in.
Transition, not a conjunction.

How it works

for example / for instance: Follow with a full example sentence or phrase. Usually followed by a comma.
such as: A preposition, not a transition. It introduces examples inside a sentence: “fruit such as apples and pears”. Do not use a comma before it in a defining list.
namely: Specifies exactly: “one language, namely Spanish”.
to illustrate: Formal: introduces an example that explains a point.
in particular / especially: Highlights one example from a group.
i.e. vs e.g.: e.g. = for example; i.e. = that is (a restatement). Use them in brackets or notes, not usually as sentence starters.

Table

Phrase	Use	Example
for example	General example	For example, the app works offline.
for instance	General example	For instance, consider the cost.
such as	Examples inside a noun phrase	Tools such as hammers and saws.
namely	Exact specification	Two people, namely Tom and Ana.
to illustrate	Formal illustration	To illustrate, look at the chart.
in particular	One notable example	In particular, young people benefited.

Examples

Some sports are very accessible. For example, running requires only shoes.
Full example
She enjoys team sports such as basketball and volleyball.
such as + nouns
Only one student passed, namely Ana.
Exact specification
Many cities, particularly coastal ones, are at risk.
Highlighting one group

Tip: “Such as” introduces examples, while “that is” (i.e.) renames or explains: “fruit such as apples” (examples) vs “the capital, that is, Paris” (the same thing).

Common mistakes

I like fruit such as apple, banana.
I like fruit such as apples and bananas.
Use plural nouns for a general list.

How it works

indeed / in fact: Confirms or strengthens the previous statement: “The film was good. In fact, it was the best I’ve seen this year.”
actually: Corrects an assumption or adds surprising information — not “currently”. “Actually, I’ve never been there.”
as a matter of fact: Conversational emphasis, often before a correction or extra detail.
especially / particularly: Highlights one case above others.
above all: The most important point in a list: “Above all, stay calm.”
undoubtedly / certainly: Strong confidence. Use them when you can support the claim.

Table

Transition	Use	Example
indeed	Confirms and strengthens	Indeed, the results were remarkable.
in fact	Adds a stronger or surprising fact	In fact, it was cheaper than expected.
actually	Corrects an assumption	Actually, I disagree.
especially	Highlights one case	Especially in rural areas.
above all	Most important point	Above all, keep a copy.
undoubtedly	Strong certainty	Undoubtedly, this was the key factor.

Examples

The project was successful. Indeed, it exceeded all expectations.
Strengthening
It’s not cheap. In fact, it’s the most expensive option.
Adding surprising detail
The trip was exhausting — above all, the flight.
Most important example
This is undoubtedly the best solution available.
Strong confidence

Tip: Do not use “actually” to mean “at the moment” — that is “currently” or “right now”.

Common mistakes

Actually, I am living in London.
Currently, I’m living in London.
Actually = in fact, not “now”.

How it works

first / firstly / first of all: Start a list or argument. “Firstly” is common in essays; “first of all” is more conversational.
next / then / after that: Continue a sequence. “Then” is neutral; “after that” makes the order explicit.
meanwhile / in the meantime: At the same time as something else, or during a waiting period.
subsequently: Formal: afterwards, later in the sequence.
finally / lastly: The last point. “Finally” can also mean “after a long time” in a narrative.
eventually vs at last: “Eventually” = in the end, after a delay. “At last” = finally, after waiting, often with relief.

Table

Transition	Use	Example
first / firstly	First point	Firstly, the cost is low.
next / then	Next step	Next, add the water.
after that	Explicit sequence	After that, we went home.
meanwhile	At the same time	Meanwhile, prices continued to rise.
subsequently	Formal afterwards	Subsequently, the rules changed.
finally / lastly	Last point	Finally, thank you all.
eventually	In the end, after a delay	Eventually, they agreed.

Examples

First, prepare the ingredients. Next, heat the oil. Finally, add the vegetables.
Instructions
The meeting ended at noon; subsequently, the team went for lunch.
Formal sequence
I was cooking dinner. Meanwhile, the children were doing homework.
Same time
After months of searching, she eventually found a flat.
In the end

Tip: In a list, “firstly” and “finally” are signposts for the reader. Keep the same style: firstly, secondly, finally — not firstly, next, at last.

How it works

in conclusion: The final conclusion of an essay, report or presentation.
to sum up / in summary: A summary of the main points, often shorter and more direct.
overall / on the whole: A general judgement after considering details: “Overall, the project was a success.”
all in all: Informal summary, common in speech.
in short: A very brief summary: “In short, we need more time.”
Avoid overuse: One conclusion phrase is enough. Do not write “In conclusion, to sum up, overall …”.

Table

Transition	Use	Example
in conclusion	Final conclusion	In conclusion, the policy should change.
to sum up	Summary of main points	To sum up, we need more data.
in summary	Formal summary	In summary, the results were positive.
overall	General judgement	Overall, the event went well.
all in all	Informal summary	All in all, it was worth it.
in short	Very brief summary	In short, we cannot proceed.

Examples

In conclusion, the benefits outweigh the risks.
Essay conclusion
To sum up, we need clearer rules and better communication.
Summary
Overall, customers were satisfied with the service.
General judgement
All in all, it was a successful trip.
Informal summary

Tip: “At the end” describes a position in time; “in the end” means finally, after everything. Neither is a conclusion transition — use “In conclusion” for the final paragraph.

How it works

admittedly: Accepts a weakness in your argument: “Admittedly, the plan is expensive.”
of course / naturally: Accepts an obvious point: “Of course, not every case is the same.”
granted: Formal: “Granted, the evidence is limited, but the trend is clear.”
The “yes, but” move: Concede first, then contrast with however / nevertheless: “Admittedly, the cost is high. However, the long-term savings are significant.”

Table

Transition	Use	Example
admittedly	Accepts a weakness	Admittedly, the data is incomplete.
of course	Accepts the obvious	Of course, this is not always true.
naturally	Accepts as expected	Naturally, costs increased.
granted	Formal concession	Granted, the sample was small.
true	Conversational concession	True, but we still need a plan.

Examples

Admittedly, the first attempt failed. Nevertheless, we learned a lot.
Concede then contrast
Of course, there are exceptions to every rule.
Obvious point
Granted, the sample was small; however, the results were consistent.
Formal concession

Tip: Concession transitions are powerful in essays and debates: admit one point, then show why your main argument still stands.

How it works

in other words: Rephrases the previous idea: “The process is irreversible. In other words, we can’t undo it.”
that is (to say): Explains or specifies: “He’s a polyglot, that is, he speaks several languages.”
namely: Names something exactly: “one issue, namely cost.”
to put it differently: A more explicit rephrasing, often in speech.
i.e.: Abbreviation of “id est” (that is). Use it in notes and brackets, not as a sentence opener.

Table

Phrase	Use	Example
in other words	Rephrase	In other words, it failed.
that is	Explain or specify	That is, the older model.
namely	Name exactly	Two colours, namely red and blue.
to put it differently	Rephrase explicitly	To put it differently, we need help.
i.e.	Formal abbreviation of “that is”	The capital, i.e. Paris.

Examples

The plan is not feasible. In other words, we can’t afford it.
Rephrasing
The company is downsizing — that is, reducing staff.
Clarification
Only one factor matters, namely price.
Exact naming

Tip: Use “in other words” when the first sentence was complex. Do not use it to introduce a new idea — it must restate the same idea.

How it works

otherwise: “Or else” — a consequence if something does not happen: “Leave now; otherwise, you’ll be late.”
instead: An alternative to what was expected or mentioned: “We didn’t fly. We took the train instead.”
alternatively: Offers a second option: “We could meet on Friday. Alternatively, Monday works too.”
in that case: If that is true: “The train is cancelled? In that case, we’ll drive.”
then: A logical consequence: “If you’re not coming, then we’ll start without you.”

Table

Transition	Use	Example
otherwise	Consequence if not	Otherwise, the data will be lost.
instead	Alternative action	Instead, we chose the cheaper option.
alternatively	Another option	Alternatively, you can pay monthly.
in that case	If that is true	In that case, we should wait.
then	Logical result	Then we have a problem.

Examples

Write it down; otherwise, you’ll forget.
Consequence of not acting
The shop was closed, so we went home instead.
Alternative action
You could call. Alternatively, send an email.
Second option
If the weather is bad, then we’ll stay in.
Conditional result

Tip: “Otherwise” is not the same as “instead”. “Otherwise” describes what happens if something does not happen; “instead” describes what happens in place of something else.

Common mistakes

We didn’t go out; otherwise, we stayed home.
We didn’t go out; instead, we stayed home.
Use instead for a replacement action.

How it works

similarly: The second situation is like the first: “The first study found a rise. Similarly, the second study reported growth.”
likewise: Formal: “The company cut costs; likewise, it reduced its office space.”
equally: Adds a point of equal importance: “Equally, we must consider the cost.”
in the same way: Explicit comparison of method or pattern.
by the same token: A logical parallel: “If we forgive small mistakes, then by the same token we should forgive this one.”

Table

Transition	Use	Example
similarly	Similar situation	Similarly, the north saw growth.
likewise	Formal similarity	Likewise, the team expanded.
equally	Equal importance	Equally, we need to act.
in the same way	Similar method or pattern	In the same way, the second test failed.
by the same token	Logical parallel	By the same token, we should help.

Examples

Prices rose in June. Similarly, sales increased in July.
Parallel trend
He refused to apologise; likewise, she refused to accept the offer.
Formal parallel
The first plan was rejected. In the same way, the second was abandoned.
Parallel outcome

Tip: Similarity transitions compare two separate ideas. If you mean “also” inside one sentence, use “also” or “as well”, not “similarly”.

How it works

Conjunction + clause: A conjunction joins two clauses in one sentence: “I stayed home because it was raining.”
Transition between sentences: A transition links ideas across sentence boundaries and needs punctuation: “It was raining. Therefore, I stayed home.”
Preposition + noun / -ing: “Because of the rain”, “despite the rain”, “due to bad weather”, “in spite of being late”.
Words with more than one job: “Before” can be a conjunction, preposition or adverb; “yet” can be a conjunction or an adverb; “so” is usually a conjunction but can introduce purpose.

Table

Word	Job	Example
because	Subordinating conjunction + clause	Because it rained, we stayed in.
because of	Preposition + noun	Because of the rain, we stayed in.
although	Subordinating conjunction + clause	Although it rained, we went out.
despite / in spite of	Preposition + noun	Despite the rain, we went out.
however	Transition (not a conjunction)	It rained. However, we went out.
so	Coordinating conjunction	It rained, so we stayed in.

Examples

Although it rained, we went out.
Conjunction + clause
Despite the rain, we went out.
Preposition + noun
It rained. Nevertheless, we went out.
Transition
He was late because of the traffic.
Preposition + noun

Tip: If the next word is a subject + verb, you need a conjunction or a transition. If the next word is a noun or -ing form, you need a preposition.

Connector practice

10 quick questions with explanations

Question 1 of 10Score: 0

I wanted to go out, ___ it was raining heavily.

How to choose a connector

Connector library

andCoordinatingAdds information, joins similar ideas and connects items in a list.

How it works

Examples

butCoordinatingIntroduces a contrast, an unexpected result or a correction.

How it works

Examples

Common mistakes

orCoordinatingOffers alternatives, lists options or states a negative condition.

How it works

Examples

norCoordinatingAdds a second negative idea. Formal, with inversion when it starts a clause.

How it works

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Common mistakes

forCoordinatingA formal, literary way to say “because”.

How it works

Examples

yetCoordinatingA formal contrast, close to “but”, often showing surprise.

How it works

Examples

soCoordinatingIntroduces a result or consequence.

How it works

Examples

Common mistakes

Reason: because, since, as, now thatSubordinatingThese conjunctions introduce the cause or explanation of a situation.

How it works

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Common mistakes

Concession: although, though, even though, even ifSubordinatingThese conjunctions introduce an idea that contrasts with the main clause — a surprising or admitted fact.

How it works

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Common mistakes

Contrast: while, whereasSubordinatingCompare two facts that are different, especially in balanced arguments.

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Common mistakes

Condition: if, unless, provided that, as long as, in caseSubordinatingThese conjunctions say under what conditions something happens.

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Common mistakes

Time: when, while, before, after, until, as soon asSubordinatingThese conjunctions place one event in time relative to another.

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Purpose: so that, in order that, soSubordinatingExplain why someone does something — what they want to achieve.

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Common mistakes

Result: so … that, such … thatSubordinatingShow a consequence of an adjective, adverb or noun phrase.

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Common mistakes

Manner & comparison: as if, as though, than, as … asSubordinatingCompare actions, people and things, or describe how something seems.

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both … andCorrelativeEmphasises that two things are true together. The verb is plural.

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Common mistakes

either … orCorrelativePresents two alternatives, often a choice between them.

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Common mistakes

neither … norCorrelativeThe negative form of “both … and”: neither of two things is true.

How it works

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Common mistakes

not only … but alsoCorrelativeAdds strong emphasis to a second, often surprising, point.

How it works

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Common mistakes

whether … orCorrelativeIntroduces two alternatives, especially when the answer is uncertain.

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Examples

Common mistakes

Addition transitionsTransitionsAdd another point, often building an argument. More formal than “and”.

How it works